California Water Crisis

http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1643127/california_farmers_to_lose_primary_water_supply/

Methane Seeping from Arctic Sea-beds

From the BBC: Methane seeps from Arctic sea-bed

Scientists have found that methane, usually trapped within the Arctic sea-bed as a "methane hydrate," an ice-like substance compose of water and methane, which is stable under high pressure and low temperature conditions, is being released from the seafloor sediment. This hydrate breaks down as temperatures rise, and "bubbles" of methane rising from the seabed indicate unstable conditions for this hydrate.

Thirty years ago, the methane hydrate was stable at depths as shallow as 360m, but recent data suggests it is now stable in depths over 400m. Temperature records indicate that the temperature in the sea off of Norway, where more than 250 plumes of methane bubbles are being released from the seafloor, has increased by 1 C during the past 30 years.

Scientists have noticed that the area of interest has been experiencing climate change at a rate faster than many other places in the world. It has been thought for a long time that if the oceans warm, hydrates within the sea floor may be released and contribute a positive greenhouse effect. The current research is attempting to determine whether this is something that's occuring in the region off of Norway in a relatively short timescale. Methane is released from the ocean floor elsewhere at higher temperatures and lower pressures, so it's possible that this has been occuring near Norway since the end of the last ice age.

The significant implications of this research are that the warming climate is causing methane to be released from more and deeper areas of the Arctic Ocean. The team wants to research further to observe the methane plumes and to determine their effect on the ocean and ultimately the atmosphere.

Pharmaceuticals and Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) and personal care products (PPCPs), come from a variety of sources, such as human, agricultural, or veterinary usage of medications, fragrances, cosmetics, vitamins, and many other products. Many PhACs or PPCPs are also endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which are natural compounds and synthetic chemicals that mimic natural hormones.

Pharmaceuticals have become a source of increasing concern because they are released into the environment with little regulation, and they persist at low ppb to ppt concentrations, which may have an adverse effect on the ecosystem as well as groundwater and surface water systems. Studies have linked EDCs to adverse biological effects in animals, which suggests the potential for similar effects in humans. EDCs enter the groundwater table from point source discharges from industry, as well as from runoff in urban and agricultural areas.

Some adverse effects from the increased presence of pharmaceuticals and EDCs in the aquatic ecosystem include cancer, fertility problems, and organ-specific health effects. Concentrations of these compounds well below their accepted regulatory levels are associated with negative effects on human and wildlife health. More research needs to be completed to assess the results of low level exposure to these compounds, but it is already known that adverse affects exist, and measures must be taken in order to reduce the influx of these compounds into the environment.

Happy Earth Day!

Happy Earth Day! Since I am a water nerd, here are some Earth Day water conservation tips! These tips can be used year-round to help reduce the amount of water we use everyday.

• Don't let the water run while shaving or brushing teeth.
• Take short showers instead of tub baths.
• Keep drinking water in the refrigerator instead of letting the faucet run until the water is cool.
• Scrape, rather than rinse, dishes before loading into the dishwasher; wash only full loads.
• Wash only full loads of laundry or use the appropriate water level or load size selection on the washing machine.
• Buy high-efficiency plumbing fixtures & appliances.
• Repair all leaks (a leaky toilet can waste 200 gallons a day).
• Water the lawn or garden during the coolest part of the day (early morning is best).
• Water plants differently according to what they need. Check with your local nursery for advice.
• Set sprinklers to water the lawn or garden only – not the street or sidewalk.
• Use soaker hoses or trickle irrigation systems for trees and shrubs.
• Sweep outside instead of using a hose.

One Word vs. Two

Perhaps you've heard, the USGS is now officially using "groundwater" as one word, instead of two. The change is in response to the widespread use of the term as one word, and is an attempt to create a single convention for the word. This move has been met with approval from some, and resistance from others.

In my introduction to groundwater at the USGS as a green hydrologic technician (two years ago), I learned that the debate between ground water and groundwater was an intense one. As an earth science student with mediocre training in hydrology, I was baffled by the debate. Whenever I was writing about ground water, I often had to ask my boss whether it should be two words or one (or hyphenated) so that the wrath of senior hydrologists would not be visited upon me later for making such a serious mistake.

I'm not sure that I understand the reason that some people find this to be such a heady issue, other than the fact that they have used ground water for most of their hydrological career. I am an unbiased party, having no particular attachment to one word or two, and as a person who prefers to have one common, standard way of reporting things, I am pleased that the USGS has come to the decision to standardize this word in a way that coincides with much of the rest of the hydrological world.

To Purge, or not to Purge

I was discussing a recent study in Bozeman with a student of groundwater hydrology where the local water quality district tested values of nitrates from wells that are purged before sampling versus nitrate levels from wells that were not purged. The results indicated that the difference in values between purged wells and water that had been sitting stagnant in the casing was subtle, but apparent.

I have not been able to find the study, as I don't think the results have been published, but this is an interesting topic since most of the groundwater in privately-owned wells is tested by untrained well owners who do not purge their wells. Thus, while the difference is not enough to be significant for owners who are just finding a baseline value for their drinking water, it is significant in terms of the data collected from owners throughout the state which is used to examine trends in groundwater by, say, the university.

When I worked for the USGS in California, we always sampled from purged wells to ensure that we sampled a representative portion of the groundwater, and not just stagnant water that hung around in the casing and did not represent the composition of the groundwater. We thus ensured an unbiased sample and that the results of our lab tests accurately reflected the actual groundwater below the well.

Nitrates

Nitrate (NO3) is a naturally-occuring compound made up of nitrogen and oxygen that is an essential nutrient for plants. It forms when ammonia or other sources of nitrogen combine with oxygen in water. Nitrate is found in plants, soil, animal manure, septic systems, sewage, fertilizers, and airborne components from industry that are deposited through precipitation or dry particles.

Nitrate is highly soluble in water and does not easily bind with other compounds, making it more likely to remain in the water cycle and thus move large distances and remain in solution in rivers, streams, or groundwater for long periods of time. This means that one could find nitrate in high concentrations miles from the original source, and years after the original source was gone.

Infants under 6 months are susceptible to methemoglobinemia, where the nitrates are converted to nitrites in their stomachs (due to bacteria in their stomachs) which then enter the bloodstream and subsequently interferes with the body's ability to carry oxygen to tissues. In children and adults, nitrates may be linked to birth defects and certain types of cancer.

So what does this mean? Long-term exposure to high levels of nitrate poses a health hazard, and therefore well owners should regularly test their groundwater for levels of nitrate above the MCL (maximum contaminant level), which is 10 mg/L for both Montana and California.

Image: American Falls at Idaho Falls, ID (July 2008)

Climate Change Impact

I found the article Low Flows, Hot Trout through the Big Sky Institute, which focuses on the Clark Fork Basin in Montana and how climate change affects the area: through increasing temperatures, earlier snowmelt, increased chance for wildfires, and impact on wildlife. The in-depth scientific analysis of climate change and what it means for the Clark Fork area can be applied to other areas facing similar problems, such as Yellowstone, Idaho, or even Bozeman. When I went to the USGS office in Boise, ID, for database training in groundwater programs, I was introduced to biological studies going on there in terms of trout and other fish, and their findings directly relate to this study.

Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling.

Landforms evolve in response to a combination of natural and anthropogenic (man-made) processes. The landscape is built up through tectonic uplift and volcanism. Denudation (the removal of material) occurs by erosion, weathering, and mass wasting, which produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere. Landscapes are also lowered by subsidence, either due to tectonics or physical changes in underlying sedimentary deposits. Practical applications of geomorphology include measuring the effects of climate change, hazard assessments (landslide prediction and mitigation), river control and restoration, coastal protection, and assessing the presence of water on Mars.

Modern geomorphology focuses on the quantitative analysis of interconnected processes, such as the contribution of solar energy, the rates of steps of the hydrologic cycle, plate movement rates from geophysics to compute the age and expected fate of landforms and the weathering and erosion of the land. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, weathering, mass wasting, ground water, surface water, glaciers, tectonism, and volcanism.

Source

Whirling Disease

Although Whirling Disease has a silly name, it has a deep negative impact on trout and salmon in Montana waters. The non-native species of parasite that causes the fish to "whirl" is introduced into the host fish by a native worm which attaches itself to the fish naturally. The parasite multiplies rapidly in the spinal cartilage of the salmon or trout and subsequently puts pressure on its organ of equilibrium. This pressure produces erratic swimming in fish, prohibiting them from successfully feeding or avoiding predators.

It is believed that Whirling Disease came from European brown trout, which are resistant to the parasite. The parasite can be spread after a fish dies from the disease, when the parasite can then make its way into another fish's spinal cartilage, making this a difficult disease to control. Thus it is important not to transfer fish from one body of water to another, to reduce the spread of the parasite spores.

Whirling Disease has had a devastating effect on Montana fisheries and recreational fishing. Efforts are being made to prevent the spread of the disease, but recreational fishers and outdoor lovers all need to contribute by not transporting fish or fish waste to other bodies of water, and other methods of prevention. I think this link link provides good basic information on stopping the spread of the disease.

Converting a Water Treatment Plant

This article, from US Water News, outlines the conversion of the Portland, OR, chlorine gas feed system to liquid sodium hypochlorite in order to "eliminate hazards associated with gas systems and to enhance chlorine residual throughout the distribution system."

The developers of the project brought in a Westfall mixer in order to make the transition while keeping the lines working. The article goes into depth about the details, but the result was a far more stable residual chlorine level even during the spring period, which usually created the worst oscillations in pH and chlorine residual.

CBM Discharge and Storm Flows

I found the report on Water Resource Monitoring of Streams in the Coal Bed Methane Production Area of the Powder River Basin, Wyoming to be interesting since it analyzes coal bed methane (CBM) discharge during storm flows, and particularly during a period (2001-2006) of drought in the watershed areas investigated.

CBM is not a topic on which I have a broad knowledge, but it is important in the Wyoming and Montana areas as a source of energy. The environmental effects of CBM wells is of particular interest to an environmentally conscious population. I participated in storm sampling with the USGS during some particularly intense (for San Diego) storms and found it to be an interesting (and wet) study, but I wasn't able to delve into the subject since my main responsibility was ground-water sampling.

It's a fairly lengthy study, but the end result concludes that, in general, there is little effect from CBM discharges on storm flow chemistry, which agrees with much of the available information that states that CBM-discharged water has little effect on the environment into which it is discharged.

Water Rights and Budget Cuts

I found this article on the US Water News wesbite, regarding Idaho's Comprehensive Aquifer Management Plan (CAMP), a plan which will cost $100 million in its first 10 years. The plan to manage the Eastern Snake Plain Aquifer in Idaho faces serious problems with current budget cuts due to a poor economy.

Boise, Idaho

The Eastern Snake Plain Aquifer provides drinking water for about one third of Idaho’s population in the eastern part of the state. Most of the water is used for agriculture, irrigating about 60% of Idaho's total irrigated acres. About half of the irrigation water is
ground-water, and the other half is surface water.

Drought and extensive ground-water pumping over the past half century have depleted this aquifer and resulting in lawsuits over water rights between surface and ground-water users. The plan intends to recharge the aquifer and to change how the water is used to resolve these disputes and preserve a vital aquifer for the eastern part of the state.

The real trouble faced by this plan is whether or not it will be passed. Extreme budget cuts threaten to prevent this measure from being passed, as it calls for $3 million per year to come from the state. The plan has been approved by the Water Resource Board, and now it must be passed by the Legislature.

The plan is a culmination of the cooperation among water users, agency staff, and consultants to create a feasible water management solution for the aquifer in both the long-term and the short-term.

Gas-Guzzling Bacteria

I found an interesting article while surfing, about bacteria that oxidize methane and can reduce the amount of methane in soils (http://www.brightsurf.com/news/headlines/17905/Gas-guzzling_bacteria.html). Under atmospheric conditions in well-drained soil, the bacteria can reduce methane in soil by 10 percent.

The bacteria was detected using a new method involving stable carbon isotopes and allows scientists "to track where carbon is incorporated into bacteria at the low atmospheric levels of methane in soils."

The bacteria can be used to maximize the amount of atmospheric methane oxidized by soils, and may help deal with the increased level of methane in our atmosphere today.

Water Sources, Distribution, Pollution

San Diego is a large county in Southern California, consisting of a predominantly semi-arid, Mediterranean climate. Only about 10-20 percent of the water is supplied by rainfall collected in the county's reservoirs, while the remaining 80-90 percent comes from two separate sources. One source is the Colorado River, coming from Lake Havasu via aqueduct. The rest comes from Northern California via the State Water Project, and is carried via aqueduct from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. The water is treated in San Diego's reservoirs for treatment and distributed to the people.

In California water is a big issue, and water rights are even bigger. Regulations in treatment and distribution of drinking water are a touchy subject for many drinking water providers.

Gallatin County in Montana is vastly different from San Diego, with a higher average rainfall (higher even than the rest of the state), and snow, of course. In particular, the City of Bozeman is supplied by Lyman Creek in the Bridger Mountains, and Sourdough and Hyalite Creeks in the Gallatin Mountains. The Lyman Creek source is ground-water. Water from Sourdough and Hyalite is treated at the Sourdough Water Treatment Plant, which provides about 75% of the water requirement for the city.

I am just learning about water rights and distribution in Montana, but from my research thus far, it seems that agricultural run-off is a major cause of pollution in streams and lakes, and the major effect on water quality.

H2O

I worked for the USGS for a year under the Ground-Water Ambient Monitoring and Assessment (GAMA) Program. The idea behind GAMA is to provide an analysis - a "big picture," if you will - of the ground-water quality throughout the state of California. The water quality sampling done by GAMA is important because the data collected is useful for providing an early indication of potential water quality problems. The gamut of constituents sampled by the program includes many that are not sampled under normal water quality testing, including things like age dating.

Water conservation is an important part of everyone's daily life. The increase in pollution of our water systems is something that must be managed and controlled so that water supplies last for continuing generations. I believe that water conservation is a serious issue, and that's why I want to continue to pursue a career in environmental sciences and water quality.

You can find more info about the GAMA program at: http://ca.water.usgs.gov/gama/

Geysers!

I went to Yellowstone National Park for the first time this past summer (July '08) and I was absolutely amazed. The natural beauty of the park is stunning, and I was also impressed on a deeper level with the geology and geothermal features I saw.

Of course I made it a point to see Old Faithful and waited with hundreds of other tourists for the eruption to occur. The supervolcano that underlies the Yellowstone area is the cause of the amazing heights the geyser reaches, as precipitation seeps through the porous ground rock and comes into contact with rocks heated by the magma, which then rises through a series of cracks and fissures within the Earth. Pressure builds beneath the Earth due to the high temperatures, and pushes the water in the upper layers of the Earth's surface out and causes an overflow. This overflow relieves the pressure below and causes it to vaporize into steam, and the force of this vaporization causes the water to shoot into the air.

Yellowstone has the world's densest concentration of geysers, with over 200 within 1.5 square miles. One of my favorite areas was the Black Sand Basin, as I've always had an affinity for obsidian, and weathered volcanic glass makes up the black sand of its eponym.

Earthquakes

I lived most of my life in a tectonically active area, near the San Andreas Fault (right), and although I've experienced my share of earthquakes and tremors, the collective number of quakes that I'd physically felt in my lifetime paled in comparison to the amount of quakes I felt during the six months I lived in Japan. Although mild, I could almost use the tremors as an alarm clock with the frequency that they occured. It was an interesting experience after living in a state that everyone believes will someday break off into the ocean.

The San Andreas Fault is a result of a transform fault... where two plates slide horizontally past each other. To the west side of the fault, the land is moving in a northwesterly direction relative to the land on the east side of the fault. This is in contrast with the tectonics of the Japanese island arc, which is a subduction zone. This occurs where two oceanic plates collide, and the younger, less dense plate overrides the older, more dense plate. As the plate is being subducted, it melts, and this hot, melted material subsequently rises to the surface and forms volcanoes, which creates an island arc. The continuing subduction under the Japanese islands causes the earthquakes.

Introduction

I am a self-proclaimed rock geek. I studied earth science at the University of California, San Diego. After graduation, I worked for the US Geological Survey as a hydrologic technician for a year. Now, I live in Montana, and although I am unemployed in my field at this time, I appreciate the geological uniqueness of this locale. So these are my geological ramblings, collected. Enjoy!